SCIENCE & TECH

Findings of Chandrayan 1

Chandrayaan-1’s X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS)

How it works

· The miniature C1XS instrument investigated the lunar surface using an effect whereby X-ray illumination from the sun causes rocks to fluoresce, emitting light at a different wavelength.

· This re-emitted light contains spectral peaks that are characteristic of elements contained in the rock, revealing its composition.

· It added that the spectral resolution of 50 km was much better than previous missions.

What it Detected

· In its 10-month orbit around the moon, Chandrayaan-1’s X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) has detected titanium, confirmed the presence of calcium, and gathered the most accurate measurements yet of magnesium, aluminium and iron on the lunar surface.

· While C1XS detected magnesium, aluminium and silicon during normal conditions, the instrument could detect calcium, iron, titanium, sodium and potassium in key areas in the southern hemisphere and on the far side of the Moon during the solar flares

· Previous lunar probes detected some of these minerals on the lunar surface, but none as accurately as the C1XS X-ray spectrometer,

J.N. Goswami, director of the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, and principal scientist for Chandrayaan-1,.

CHANDRAYAN-1

1. Project Director of Chandrayaan-1 M. Annadurai

2. Principal Scientist of Chandrayaan-1, J.N. Goswami,

Discoveries made by M3

Moon Minerology Mapper of Chandrayaan-1 is a NASA instrument

· Discovered the presence of water and hydroxyl molecules on the lunar surface material last year,

· It has identified a new lunar rock type on the far side of the moon.

CHANDRAYAN-1 & WATER

Dr. Carle Pieters of Brown University in the U.S, principal investigator for the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) on the Chandrayaan-1.

A new chapter has been added to the decades-long scientific quest for water on the moon. An instrument on the Chandrayaan-1, known as the Moon Mineralogy Mapper, has detected unmistakeable signs of water molecules at many places on the surface of our celestial neighbour.

BACKGROUND

· When samples of lunar rock and soil brought back by the Apollo astronauts were analysed,. The moon appeared to be, “an exceedingly dry place.”

· The search for water on the moon, however, revived in the 1990s when two U.S. spacecraft, the Clementine and the Lunar Prospector, found evidence for what was said to be water in the form of ice in permanently shadowed craters at the poles.

· But this evidence has been hotly contested. So much so that last year Japanese researchers declared that careful analysis of images taken by the Kaguya/SELENE spacecraft did not throw up any sign of ice inside a key crater at the south pole.

· But it was also last year that U.S. scientists published a study that used new techniques to examine beads of volcanic glass collected by two Apollo missions. They found minute traces of water.

1. That suggested that water had been a part of the moon since its formation and could be found deep inside it.

Against this background, the discovery of traces of water by the Chandrayaan-1, supported by findings from two U.S. deep space missions that gazed at the moon as they passed by, is of huge scientific interest.

HOW IT WAS DETECTED

The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3), a U.S.-supplied instrument that flew on the Chandrayaan-1, examined the intensity of different colours of sunlight bouncing off the lunar surface.

· American and Indian scientists report that the instrument found a distinctive signature of water and hydroxyl emanating from the moon. (A water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom linked to two hydrogen atoms, while hydroxyl has the oxygen atom attached to just one hydrogen atom.)

· The M3 discovered the signature of water and hydroxyl on the surface soil and rocks at many diverse places in sunlit regions of the moon.

· The signature was stronger at the higher latitudes.

· Two U.S. space missions, Cassini and the Deep Impact spacecraft, had provided supporting evidence.

WHAT DOES WATER ON MOON MEANS ?

But when we say ‘water on the moon,’ we are not talking about lakes, oceans or even puddles.

· Water on the moon means molecules of water and hydroxyl that interact with molecules of rock and dust specifically in the top millimetres of the moon’s surface,

· What was detected was water molecules present in extremely minute quantities on the surface soil and rocks,

· It was estimated that less than a teaspoon of water could be squeezed out from several kg of lunar soil.

Where did the water on moon come from?

The water could come from different sources.

· Countless comets and meteors that have crashed into the moon over billions of years might have brought water.

· Water contained in tiny beads of lunar volcanic glasses that were collected by two Apollo missions. The discovery suggested that water might exist deep inside the moon.

· Now the Chandrayaan-1 data provides support for the idea that solar wind, made up mostly of hydrogen ions, interacts with oxygen in the lunar soil and rocks to produce water.

1. When hydrogen and oxygen atoms bond, hydroxyl is generated; addition of one more hydrogen atom results in water.

2. Much of that water may be lost to space but some of it could be transported along the surface till it becomes trapped at the bottom of icy cold polar craters that are never exposed to sunlight.

· Water, it would seem, is being constantly generated all over the lunar surface.

1. Much of it may well boil off into space;

2. Some of it may percolate deeper down into the soil.

3. Some of the water could end up at the bottom of deep polar craters,

· Which have recently been described as some of the coldest places in the entire solar system.

· Such water, it is said, will benefit any future efforts to establish a manned outpost on the moon, supplying drinking water and rocket fuel.

OTHER INSTRUMENT (intotal 11 instruments ) ON CHANDRAYAN 1 & THEIR APPLICATION

Mini Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR)

· Moon Mineralogy Mapper have only found that something [the traces of water] is there on the top surface of the lunar soil.

· ISRO officials indicated that there were possibilities that the Mini-SAR might have found water ice in the permanently shadowed polar regions of the moon.

· The Mini-SAR was developed jointly by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and the Naval Air Warfare Centre, both in the U.S., and it came through NASA.

LRO ( Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite)

The NASA’s LRO is now orbiting the moon.

· The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite on it will be crashed on to a deep crater in the moon’s South Pole, and the dust particles kicked up by the impact will be imaged by 50 telescopes around the world.

· The particles will be analysed for the presence of water ice or hydrogen on the moon.

UNDERSTANDING LUNAR CRUST

The generally accepted characterisation of the lunar crust is based principally on

· Retrieved (collected) lunar material by the Apollo-Lunar(US) missions and meteorite samples.

· The crust is described as a rocky accumulation, basically

1. rich in calcium-aluminium silicates (anorthosites) infused with a mix of compounds containing magnesium and iron (‘mafic’ minerals).

2. The rock-type is dominated by a mineral termed as ‘magnesium spinel.

· ’Spinel is a generic name given to a class of minerals having the chemical formula AB{-2}O{-4} and the usual spinel formations found in lunar rocks is an iron-magnesium admixture of the form (Mg, Fe)(Al, Cr){-2}O{-4}.

· These rocks are usually found along with magnesium-iron silicate (olivine) and calcium-rich aluminium silicate (pyroxene).

What unique M3 discovered at the western ring of the Moscoviense Basin

· A new rock type that is exclusively composed of magnesium-rich spinel with no detectable pyroxene or olivine present.

· (Relevance) This does not easily fit with current lunar crustal evolution models.

REASON FOR ITS PRESCENCE

There does not seem to be any easy explanation for the occurrence of these spinel formations , probable reasons are

· Since magnesium-spinels have been seen in some asteroids, one possible explanation is that the source is exogenous asteroid or comet impacts.

1. However, there is no evidence of any impact or dispersion of rubble pile and the like from the impact’s aftermath.

· An interesting feature of the Moscoviense Basin is that the crust in the region is much thinner, compared to other basins.

1. This is indicative of a magma upturning over much recent time scales as compared to other regions.

2. It is so because these are very dense and would have been deposited right at the bottom during the cooling and crystallization of the crust.

The recent upturning may have brought it up from the lunar deep crust during the basin formation

PSLV puts Oceansat-2 and six nano satellites in orbit

· ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair

· K. Radhaakrishnan, Director, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram.

· Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu

· Space Applications Centre (SAC) in Ahmedabad , Director R.R. Navalgund

· National Remote Sensing Agency’s (NRSA) earth station at Shadnagar,Hyderabad

The first PSLV flight took place on September 20, 1993.(IRS-1A)

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle- C14 (four stage) roared its way to success from the Sriharikota spaceport (Satish Dhawan Space Centre)

· put in orbit India’s Oceansat-2 and six foreign nano satellites.

· This was the 15th successful flight of the launch vehicle in a row.

DETAILS

The 960-kg Oceansat-2 (at an altitude of about 728 km) had three important payloads.

· They were the ocean colour monitor, The ocean colour(designed by the SAC )monitor would gather data about plant life in the oceans

· a scatterometer (designed by the SAC) and the scatterometer would measure the sea surface winds.

1. Winds are important for weather forecasting and how the cyclones are generated

· Radio Occultation Sounder for Atmospheric Studies (ROSA) built by the Italian Space Agency.

1. The ROSA would study the temperature and humidity in the atmosphere.

(Conclusion)These three payloads will help in monitoring many of the phenomena [related to the oceans and the atmosphere] and help in predicting the weather

The six nano satellites put in orbit were educational satellites from abroad, meant to test new spacecraft technologies.

1. Of the six, four were Cubesats (called Cubesat 1, 2, 3 and 4 ) weighing one kg each. They were from

· Ecole Polytechnique federale de Lausanne in Switzerland, (Cubesat 1)

1. This is SwissCube, the first-ever satellite built entirely in Switzerland.

· Technical University of Berlin and University of Wurzburg, both(Cubesat 2& 3) in Germany,

· Istanbul Technical University.(Cubesat 4)

1. The two nano Rubinsats ( called Rubinsat 9.1 and 9.2), weighing eight kg each, were from Luxembourg and Germany.

OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

GSLV first successful launch was in 2001

A Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-D3) with an indigenous cryogenic stage

• It would put a communication satellite called GSAT-4 in orbit
• Its indigenous cryogenic stage would undergo tests at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu. Then it would be moved to Sriharikota and integrated with the other stages.

· The PSLV-C15, it would put Cartosat-2B in orbit.

· ISRO had completed the preliminary design of Chandrayaan-2, which would boast of a lander-cum-rover. The rover would go about on the moon and pick up samples, which would be analyse done site. Its launch would take place in 2012-13.

SITVEC

· In the core-alone version of PSLV C14 there are no strap-on boosters instead there are the tubular structures which are called Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control (SITVEC).

· Two of them are related to the system which changes the orientation of the rocket when it is in flight, and

1. The other two provide symmetry to the rocket – they balance the launch vehicle.

NIO

Very important discoveries have been made recently in neutrino physics and neutrino astronomy .Scientists from the United States and Japan received the Nobel Prize in 2002 for these discoveries.

What are Neutrinos ?

Neutrinos are elementary particles that are filling the Universe in abundance but are very elusive.

· Trillions of neutrinos are passing through our bodies every second without affecting us.

· One of the most important discoveries of the last decade is that neutrinos have mass.

1. Until this discovery, it was thought that neutrinos are massless particles like photons, the quanta of light.

· This has led to active planning of many more neutrino laboratories round the world, especially considering that a considerable part of neutrino physics is yet to be discovered

INDIA’s Initiatives ?

India was a pioneer in neutrino physics. The very first detection of cosmic-ray produced neutrinos was made in the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) experiment in 1965. But the KGF laboratory was closed in the 1990s because the KGF mines were closed.

The India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) project

· It is a unique basic science collaboration in the country.

· It has been approved for funding by the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Science and Technology and

· It is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan.

· It will be set up in Masinagudi, Tamil Nadu, India.( After Niligiri hills was rejected by the government)

Application of Neutrino technology ?

Some of the exciting applications of neutrino technology will be these:

(a) Since neutrinos are the most penetrating radiation known to mankind

1. Typical neutrino can travel a million Earth diameters of matter without getting stopped, neutrino beams will be the ultimate tools for the tomography of Earth.

(b) A new window on geophysics opened a few years ago

1. When a neutrino detector in Japan detected geoneutrinos emitted by radioactive uranium and thorium ore buried in the bowels of the Earth.

2. This leads to the possibility of mapping the whole Earth as far as its radioactive content is concerned.

ISRO plans to use semi-cryogenic engines

ISRO Chairman K. Radhakrishnan.

Srikumar Banerjee, Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission

V.K. Saraswat, Director-General, Defence Research and Development Organisation,

· The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has embarked on a programme to induct semi-cryogenic engines, which will use kerosene as fuel, and this engine will form the booster for its future launch vehicles,

· The Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV Mark III), which was under development, would put a four-tonne satellite in a geo-synchronous transfer orbit. Will be used to send Chandrayaan -2 (by 2013)

· The ISRO had embarked on a human space programme (year 2015), and it planned to put two Indians in space in an orbit around the earth in seven years,

BARC

· A second research centre of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre would be set up in Visakhapatnam because BARC, Trombay, was expanding in a big way.

· The Visakhapatnam centre would concentrate on energy science and environment.

The Department of Atomic Energy’s mandate was also to conduct basic research in physics, chemistry, mathematics and material sciences, Dr. Banerjee said.

The DRDO was working on hypersonic cruise missiles . It had developed an engine for missiles that worked on kerosene.

Terrestrial Radiations & its Measurement

SOURCES

Background radiation level at any place depends mainly on terrestrial radiation from

· natural radionuclides such as uranium, thorium and their decay products and

· potassium-40 present in soil and

· on cosmic rays (radiation from outer space).

Prescence in soil

· The top one metre soil in a land of area 0.1 acre anywhere in the country may contain 1.28 kg of potassium-40, 3.6 kg of thorium and one kg of uranium.

· In different soils these values may be higher or lower. The dose due to natural radiation varies from place to place.

Measurement Unit

· Gray is a unit of radiation dose.

1. When the dose is one gray, the energy from ionizing radiation absorbed is one joule per kg;

2. since gray is a big unit, submutiples such as milli-one thousandth or micro -one millionth-of a gray are usually used.

· Sievert — Sv — is another unit. For all practical purposes, background radiation expressed in sievert or gray may be considered numerically equal

Nanotechnology turns fifty

Nanotechnology implies the power to manipulate matter at the atomic level. It is the power of the creator, as all are constructed with atoms

· On December 29, 2009, we celebrated the golden jubilee of Nanotechnology. It was on this day, fifty years ago Professor Richard P. Feynman (Nobel Laureate, 1965) delivered the celebrated talk, ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom,’ which predicted the era of nanotechnology — the technology of nanometre scale objects.

1. He proposed a new kind of technology by assembling things atom by atom, in today’s terms, ‘molecular nanotechnology’. Since 1991, we arrange atoms one at a time to create well-defined structures.

2. A new methodology to see and place atoms called scanning tunneling microscopy came in 1981 and numerous modifications of this tool revolutionized all branches of science.

· The terminology, “nanotechnology” itself came into being in 1974, due to Professor Norio Taniguchi(. Tokyo State University)

ECONOMIC ASPECT

Global nanotechnology research budget is substantial.

· In the U.S. alone, the projected budget for FY 2010 is $1.6 billion. A sum of $10.1 billion was spent in this area in the U.S. during 2001-2009.

· Indian efforts have been small, the government started a Nano Mission two years ago with an investment of Rs.1,000 crores in five years.

· Nanotechnology is expected to produce goods and services worth $2.6 trillion in the year 2014 globally.

Sun glints signal oceans and lakes

In two new videos from NASA’s Deep Impact spacecraft, bright flashes of light known as sun glints act as beacons signalling large bodies of water on Earth.

· These sun glints are like sunshine glancing off the hood of a car. We can see them reflecting off a smooth surface when we are positioned in just the right way with respect to the sun and the smooth surface.

EPOCh

The Extrasolar Planet Observations and Characterization (EPOCh) is a part of Deep Impact’s extended mission, called EPOXI.

· One of EPOCh’s goals is to observe the Earth from far away (about eleven million miles away) so that we know what an Earth-like planet would look like when viewed from our spacecraft

How Earth Like Planet would be detected ?

That will be through Sun Glints .

· These observations give scientists a way to pick out planets beyond our solar system (extrasolar planets) that are likely to have expanses of liquid, and so stand a better chance of having life.

On a planetary scale, only liquids and ice can form a surface smooth enough to produce the effect — land masses are too rough — and the surface must be very large.

Why Earth Appears BLUE ?

Seen from very far away, Earth looks like a blue dot. But the blue comes from Rayleigh scattering in our atmosphere rather than from the oceans,

· Rayleigh scattering (named after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh) is the elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules.

· It can occur when light travels in transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases.

· Rayleigh scattering is a function of the electric polarizability of the particles.

· Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in clear atmosphere is the main reason why the sky is blue:

How it works?

Light from the sun that does not happen to be traveling toward our eyes scatters off molecules and other small particles in the atmosphere.

· Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength,

1. so that the shorter wavelength of blue light will scatter more than the longer wavelengths of green and especially red light, giving the sky a blue appearance.

2. Conversely, glancing toward the sun, the colors that were not scattered away -- the longer wavelengths such as red and yellow light -- are visible,

· Giving the sun itself a slightly yellowish hue.

· Viewed from outer space, the sky is black and the sun is white.

OBSERVATION DURING SOLAR ECLIPSE

Another piece of puzzle of solar corona has been found by observing the sun’s outer atmosphere during eclipses.

HOW ?

By ground-based observations reveal the first images of the solar corona in the near-infrared emission line of highly ionized iron, or Fe XI 789.2 nm.

The images revealed some surprises

· Most notably, that the emission extends out at least three solar radii—that’s one-and-a-half times the sun’s width at its equator, or middle—above the surface of the sun, and

· That there are localized regions of enhanced density for these iron ions.

· The observations yield the two-dimensional distribution of electron temperature and charge-state measurements for the first time,

1. This establish the first direct link between the distribution of charge states in the corona and in interplanetary space.

· These are the first such maps of the 2-D distribution of coronal electron temperature and ion charge state,

RELEVANCE

Mapping the distribution of electron temperature and iron charge states in the corona with total solar eclipse observations represents an important step in understanding

· The solar corona and

· How space weather impacts Earth.

LAVA TUBE

In a major discovery, geophysicists identified a vertical hole in the volcanic Marius Hills region on the moon’s near side.

· The dark pit is 213-feet wide and is estimated to be more than 260-feet deep,

· A thin sheet of lava protects the hole from the moon’s harsh temperatures and meteorite strikes and

1. makes the tube suitable for further exploration or possible inhabitation. (relevance)

2. (HOW)Any intact lava tube could serve as a shelter from the severe environment of the lunar surface, with its meteorite impacts, high-energy UV radiation and energetic particles, and extreme diurnal temperature variations.

· The research was carried out using high-resolution images from a Japanese moon orbiter called SELENE (p/t)

· The Japanese space agency JAXA.

India, Japan to develop solar city

India & Japan decided to jointly develop a solar city in India.

· (Relevance)The solar city project aims to reduce a minimum of 10 per cent of its projected demand of conventional energy at the end of five years through energy efficiency measures and generation from renewable energy installations.

1. The Indian Government has, so far, given in-principle approval to 34 cities to be developed as solar cities.

· Japan is keen on promoting “Midori no Bunken” which aims at changing centralised society to community-based society to enhance self-sufficiency within a region through maximising natural resources, including forest, sea, food and energy, with emphasis on not relying on electricity generated by others. It focusses on renewable energy such as solar, wind, micro hydro and biomass energy.

· As part of the exchange programme, a 10-member delegation from India will participate in the Japan-India New and Renewable Energy Seminar in Tokyo.

Brahmos to be assembled in Pilani

The Chief Controller of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Chief Executive Officer of BrahMos Board, Sivthanu Pillai,

· At present the Brahmos missiles, a joint venture of India and Russia, are assembled in Hyderabad.

· There is also a Brahmos Aerospace Thiruvananthapuram Limited near the Kerala capital.

· The country’s next assembling centre for the prestigious Brahmos missiles will be Rajasthan’s Pilani.

Brahmos is the fastest missile(supersonic) in the world, The missile moves three times faster than the speed of sound

WHOLE BLOOD FINGER PRICK

This new technology would enable testing of HIV status of a person within 20 minutes. ADVANTAGE

· The major advantage of the ‘whole blood finger-prick’ technology is that for it there would be no need to separate serum and red blood cells of a blood sample to test for HIV.

· The new technology being tried now accepts whole blood and can tell HIV status by a simple finger prick.

· For a common man the testing would be similar to the blood test for malaria.

· This technology has been quite successful in African countries where most people are being tested for HIV by this new and fast technology

Procedure in conventional Technique

· The conventional HIV testing kits being used now accept only serum collected from blood samples to test for HIV antibody.

· A centrifuge which separates the serum from the blood is a major need of conventional HIV testing technologies.

· The presence of HIV antibody in one’s blood hints at HIV infection

What is a CD4 Count and Why is it Important?

Answer:

Our immune system contains different types of cells that help protect the body from infection. One of these types of specialized cells are called the CD4 or T-cells.

· HIV attacks these types of cells and uses them to make more copies (ie HIV replication ) of HIV.

· And in doing so, HIV weakens the immune system, making it unable to protect the body from illness and infection.

The Step-by-Step Process of HIV Replication (Making HIV Copies)

Early in the course of the disease, the body can make more CD4 cells to replace the ones that have been damaged by HIV. Eventually, the body can't keep up and the number of functioning T-cells decreases. As more and more CD4 cells become damaged, the immune system becomes more and more weakened. Eventually, the weakened immune system leaves the body at risk for illness and infection infections.

CD4 Count (P/T)

· The higher the number of CD4 cells the stronger your immune system.

· People without HIV infection have about 700 to 1000 CD4 cells in a drop of blood the size of a pea.

· HIV infected people are considered to have "normal" CD4 counts if the number is above 500 CD4 cells in that same size drop of blood.

· If the number of CD4 cells in that drop of blood ever drops below 200 CD4 cells, person is classified as having AIDS.

ISRO plans to use semi-cryogenic engines

ISRO Chairman K. Radhakrishnan.

Srikumar Banerjee, Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission

V.K. Saraswat, Director-General, Defence Research and Development Organisation,

· The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has embarked on a programme to induct semi-cryogenic engines, which will use kerosene as fuel, and this engine will form the booster for its future launch vehicles,

· The Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV Mark III), which was under development, would put a four-tonne satellite in a geo-synchronous transfer orbit. Will be used to send Chandrayaan -2 (by 2013)

· The ISRO had embarked on a human space programme (year 2015), and it planned to put two Indians in space in an orbit around the earth in seven years,

BARC

· A second research centre of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre would be set up in Visakhapatnam because BARC, Trombay, was expanding in a big way.

· The Visakhapatnam centre would concentrate on energy science and environment.

The Department of Atomic Energy’s mandate was also to conduct basic research in physics, chemistry, mathematics and material sciences, Dr. Banerjee said.

The DRDO was working on hypersonic cruise missiles . It had developed an engine for missiles that worked on kerosene.

Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)

India building an 80 MWe Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR ) at Kalpakkam near Chennai which marks the beginning of its indigenous PWR capability,

· (p/t)Pressurized water reactors (PWRs, called VVER in Russia) constitute a majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of two types of light water reactor (LWR), the other type being boiling water reactors (BWRs)

· PWR's were originally designed to serve as nuclear submarine power plants and

1. were used in the original design of the first commercial power plant at Shippingport Atomic Power Station(USA)

2. An identical PWR of the same capacity would propel the indigenous nuclear-powered submarine INS Arihant that was launched on July 26.

· The launch of propelled India into an exclusive club of countries that possess their own nuclear-powered submarines, which already has five members – Russia, the United States, France, the United Kingdom and China.

3. The two PWRs were built by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).

· Enriched uranium would fuel them, and light water was both coolant and moderator.

· The Rare Materials Project at Ratnahalli, near Mysore, produced the enriched uranium.

· India also has two Light Water Reactors that use enriched uranium as fuel, and light water as coolant and moderator .

OTHER DEVELOPMENT

· The Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which use natural uranium as fuel,and heavy water (D2O) as coolant and moderator.

1. India has 15 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors — PHWRs

· The FBRs would use plutonium-uranium oxide as fuel.

1. India was building the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, its breeders would use plutonium-uranium oxide as fuel.

· The AHWR, to be built, would have thorium as fuel.

· BARC was also developing the Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR) to split hydrogen from water. Hydrogen would be the fuel of the future

· Arihant was a joint project of the DAE, the Navy and the DRDO.

URANIUM MINES

· The capacity of the mill at Jaduguda in Jharkhand, which converted natural uranium into yellow cake, had been augmented.

· Another mill at Turamdih, also in Jharkhand, was commissioned and its production of yellow cake was going up.

· The uranium mine and the mill, which were under construction at Tummlapalle in Kadapa district in Andhra Pradesh, would go on stream in 2013.

· Exploration mining was taking place at Gogi in Karnataka.

New projects

· The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was looking forward to the start of the construction of four PHWRs of 700 MWe each, for which the Union government had given approval.

· Three new reactors — two units at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS-5 and 6) and the fourth unit at Kaiga in Karnataka — would be commissioned in a phased manner between this year and next year,

CONCEPT

WHAT HAPPENS INSIDE NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear reactors generate energy through Nuclear fission, the process by which an atomic nucleus splits into two or more smaller nuclei.

· During fission, a small amount of mass is converted into energy, which can be used to power a generator to create electricity.

· In order to harness this energy, a controlled chain reaction is required for fission to take place.

1. (Chain Reaction)When a uranium nucleus in a reactor splits, it produces two or more neutrons that can then be absorbed by other nuclei, causing them to undergo fission as well.

2. More neutrons are released in turn and continuous fission is achieved.

WHY MODERATOR IS REQUIRED

· Neutrons produced by fission have high energies and move extremely quickly.

1. These so-called fast neutrons do not cause fission as efficiently as slower-moving ones so they are slowed down in most reactors by the process of moderation.

· A liquid or gas moderator, commonly water or helium, cools the neutrons to optimum energies for causing fission.

· These slower neutrons are also called thermal neutrons because they are brought to the same temperature as the surrounding coolant.

CASE OF BREEDER REACTOR

In contrast to most normal nuclear reactors, however, a fast reactor uses a coolant that is not an efficient moderator, such as liquid sodium, so its neutrons remain high-energy.

RELEVANCE ?

Although these fast neutrons are not as good at causing fission, they are readily captured by an isotope of uranium (U₂₃₈), which then becomes plutonium (Pu₂₃₉).

· This plutonium isotope can be reprocessed and used as more reactor fuel or in the production of nuclear weapons.

· Reactors can be designed to maximize plutonium production, and

· These reactors are called breeder reactors because in some cases they actually produce more fuel than they consume.

WHAT MAKES BREEDER REACTOR POSSIBLE ?

Breeder reactors are possible because of the proportion of uranium isotopes that exist in nature.

· Natural uranium consists primarily of U₂₃₈, which does not fission readily, and U₂₃₅, which does. Natural uranium is unsuitable for use in a nuclear reactor, however, because it is only 0.72 percent U₂₃₅, which is not enough to sustain a chain reaction.

· Commercial nuclear reactors normally use uranium fuel that has had its U₂₃₅ content enriched to somewhere between 3 and 8 percent by weight. Although the U₂₃₅ does most of the fissioning, more than 90 percent of the atoms in the fuel are U₂₃₈--potential neutron capture targets and future plutonium atoms.

· Pu₂₃₉, which is created when U₂₃₈ captures a neutron, forms U₂₃₉ and then undergoes two beta decays, happens to be even better at fissioning than U₂₃₅.

COCEPT OF FAST BREEDER REACTOR

Pu₂₃₉ is formed in every reactor and also fissions as the reactor operates. In fact, a nuclear reactor can derive a significant amount of energy from such plutonium fission. But because this plutonium fissions, it reduces the amount that is left in the fuel

· To maximize plutonium production, therefore, a reactor must create as much plutonium as possible while minimizing the amount that splits. This is why many breeder reactors are also fast reactors.

1. Fast neutrons are ideal for plutonium production because they are easily absorbed by U₂₃₈ to create Pu₂₃₉, and

2. They cause less fission than thermal neutrons.

3. Some fast breeder reactors can generate up to 30 percent more fuel than they use.

CONERNS INVOLVED

Creating extra fuel in nuclear reactors, however, is not without its concerns:

1. One is that the plutonium produced can be removed and used in nuclear weapons.

2. Another is that, to extract the plutonium, the fuel must be reprocessed, creating radioactive waste and potentially high radiation exposures.

3. In the world, only India, Russia, Japan and China currently have operational fast breeder reactor programs; the U.K., France and Germany have effectively shut down theirs.

Terrestrial Radiations & its Measurement

SOURCES

Background radiation level at any place depends mainly on terrestrial radiation from

· natural radionuclides such as uranium, thorium and their decay products and

· potassium-40 present in soil and

· on cosmic rays (radiation from outer space).

Prescence in soil

· The top one metre soil in a land of area 0.1 acre anywhere in the country may contain 1.28 kg of potassium-40, 3.6 kg of thorium and one kg of uranium.

· In different soils these values may be higher or lower. The dose due to natural radiation varies from place to place.

Measurement Unit

· Gray is a unit of radiation dose.

1. When the dose is one gray, the energy from ionizing radiation absorbed is one joule per kg;

2. since gray is a big unit, submutiples such as milli-one thousandth or micro -one millionth-of a gray are usually used.

· Sievert — Sv — is another unit. For all practical purposes, background radiation expressed in sievert or gray may be considered numerically equal

Milestone in stem cell research ( in induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells )

BREAKTHROUGH

· Research on reprogramming adult cells to make them behave like embryonic stem cells crossed a milestone recently when two Chinese teams succeeded in producing mouse pups using such cells.

· ie pluripotency of iPS cells has been proved to a certain extent

SCIENTIST

· Qi Zhous of the Chinese Academy of Science &

· Shaorong Gao from the National Institute of Biological Sciences in Beijing,

CONCEPTUAL UNERSTANDING

Stem cells are cells found in most, if not all, multi cellular organisms. They are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and differentiating into a diverse range of specialized cell types.

· Research in the stem cell field grew out of findings by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till in the 1960s.^[1][2]

· The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are:

1. embryonic stem cells that are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts(p/t)(stage of development of embryo ), and

2. adult stem cells that are found in adult tissues.

· HOW THEY WORK

1. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues.

2. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing specialized cells, but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues.

^· Stem cells can now be grown and transformed into specialized cells with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture.

^1. Highly plastic adult stem cells from a variety of sources, including umbilical cord blood and bone marrow, are routinely used in medical therapies.

^2. Embryonic cell lines and autologous embryonic stem cells generated through therapeutic cloning have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies.^[3]

TERMINIOLOGY

PLURIPOTENCY

· In cell biology, the definition of pluripotency has come to refer to a stem cell that has the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers:

1. (p/t)) endoderm (interior stomach lining, gastrointestinal tract, the lungs),

2. (p/t) mesoderm (muscle, bone, blood, urogenital), or

3. (p/t) ectoderm (epidermal tissues and nervous system).

· Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to any fetal or adult cell type.

1. However, alone they cannot develop into a fetal or adult animal because they lack the potential to contribute to extraembryonic tissue, such as the placenta (recent research has changed this notion )

SOMATIC CELL (soma derieved from greek word soma ie body )

· Somatic cells (diploid) are any cells forming the body of an organism, as opposed to germline cells.

· In mammals, germline cells (also known as "gametes") are the spermatozoa and ova which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

· Every other cell type in the mammalian body—apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells—is a somatic cell:

· Internal organs, skin, bones, blood, and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells.

UNDERSTANDING LATEST DEVELOPMENT

Ever since induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells were produced in 2006 by reprogramming adult cells,

· The unassailable evidence of their pluripotency ie, ability of the cells to behave like embryonic stem cells and form all of the 200-odd specialised cells — was lacking.

· The latest success in producing mouse pups using reprogrammed adult cells has taken research one step closer to proving the pluripotency of iPS cells.

HOW THEY ACHIEVE IT ?

· One team, headed by Qi Zhous (27 pups, including TINY) of the Chinese Academy of Science, and the other, led by Shaorong Gao (Four pups )from the National Institute of Biological Sciences in Beijing, were able to produce mouse pups using iPS cells injected into early-stage embryos that can only become the placenta and not develop into animals.

· The pups created by Qi Zhous passed the fundamental test of health

RELEVANCE

· Many scientists are turning to iPS cell technique to sidestep the ethical controversy of embryo destruction when somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technique is used.

· Also, unlike in the case of SCNT, human eggs are not required when iPS cells are used for making embryos.

· The technique is nearing maturity and may pave the way for creating cell lines to study genetic diseases.

PROBLEMS

· The Qi Zhous team used retroviral vectors to introduce four genes to reprogramme adult cells.

1. Retroviruses are known to induce cancer in mammals.

2. Though some studies have succeeded in inducing pluripotency without using these viruses, more research remains to be done.

· Similarly, oncogenes were used for reprogramming adult cells. This again raises the possibility of cancer formation when the pluripotent cells are introduced into an animal.

· Skin cells are routinely used for making iPS cells. Though available in plenty, turning back their clocks to make them pluripotent is a big challenge.

· Both the Scientists had hence used more pliable cells taken from late-stage embryos. This approach will not be useful if the iPS technique is used for patient-matched therapeutic applications. However,

Bhuvan

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launch its own version of Google Earth ‘Called ‘Bhuvan,’ the new web-based 3D mapping tool

· It uses images taken over a year ago by ISRO’s seven remote sensing satellites, including Cartosat-1 and Cartosat-2. The satellites can capture images of objects as small as a car on a road

· This would provide a sharper picture of Indian terrain barring sensitive locations such as military and nuclear installations & offers tools to measure horizontal, vertical and aerial distances.

· The degree of resolution showcased is based on the level of popularity of a place or an area. Most of the terrain is covered up to a resolution of at least six metres. The least spatial resolution is 55 metres.

· The user can also navigate through 3D viewing environment. One can “fly” to destinations of choice and even draw 3D objects such as placing of expressive 3D models, 3D polygons and boxes.

· Later speaking to journalists, ISRO Chairman said the space agency had started the preparations for a mission to Mars within the next six years. It was looking at launch opportunities between 2013 and 2015.

HUBBLE’S CONSTANT

Defination

Hubble's constant is the speed at which a distant galactic object is moving away from us divided by the distance of the object from the telescope or the earth.

Relevance

It can be shown by simple arithmetic that the reciprocal of Hubble's constant is the age of the universe based on the Big Bang theory. Hence it is necessary to refine it to a point of perfection to arrive at an accurate figure for the age of the universe.

How it is calculated

· The Hubble constant using a relationship between the absolute brightness of a type of variable star (whose brightness varied) called Cepheid and its period of variability.

· The method measured the observed brightness and periods of these stars in distant galaxies.

1. Comparing the observed brightness with the absolute brightness inferred from the period allows one to measure the distance to the object and hence estimate the Hubble constant.

Nasa's Spitzer infrared space telescope (launch in 2003) will refined Hubble's constant (p/t)

· Spitzer's instruments detect everything between 3.6 to 160 microns. To detect 160 micron light (longest wavelength of infrared light ), without being swamped by the internal thermal glow of the instrument itself, the telescope must be chilled to just a few degrees above absolute zero.

· At shorter wavelengths it can operate at progressively warmer temperatures. Warm Spitzer will address many of the same science questions as before including refining estimates of Hubble's constant, or the rate at which our universe is stretching apart.

1. The advantage of doing this in infrared is that the observed brightness will not be affected by the interstellardust between us and the star, and hence the distance measurements will be much more robust.

· Since its launch in 2003, Spitzer has made many discoveries including planet forming discs around stars, the composition of materials that make up comets, hidden black holes, galaxies billions of light-years away and more.

Redd

What is Redd?

Redd — Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation — would allow countries that can reduce emissions from deforestation to be paid for doing so.

Where did the idea come from?

Papua New Guinea and nine other countries proposed it in 2005 at a U.N. climate meeting. It is now likely to be one of the cornerstones of any agreement at the Copenhagen climate conference in December. It would start in 2013, and could eventually channel tens of billions of dollars a year from rich to poor countries.

How would it work?

Countries would have to show — from historical data, satellite imagery and direct measurement of trees — the extent, condition and carbon content of their forests. Verification, reporting and monitoring would be done by communities that depend on the forests or by independent organisations. Protected trees would have to be shown to have been threatened.

Who pays?

There are several proposals. Countries could either be paid by “voluntary funding” — rather like existing official aid given by one country to another — or cash could be linked to trade in carbon credits.

Does everyone agree?

No. There are 32 Redd proposals, from countries, groups of country and NGOs. The two gaining most ground are from Brazil. Once a model is agreed upon, many problems will remain. There is as yet no agreed way to accurately measure the carbon content of different kinds of forests. The rights of the tens of millions of people who live in forests could be at risk if carbon companies move in, valuing the forests more highly than them. And land ownership is often a difficult issue to resolve — and ownership of trees, even more so.

TARA OCEAN (20 FEB)

The first-ever, round-the-globe expedition ‘Tara Ocean’ Having set sail from Lorient, France, last September and navigated through the Red Sea, Tara will dock in Mumbai on March 24.

The three-year expedition will study marine life in the context of climate change. It comprises a team of oceanographers, ecologists, biologists, geneticists, and physicists from universities and institutes around the world.

The expedition aims to answer some fundamental questions about the ocean, Chris Bowler, scientific coordinator of Tara Ocean,

Contribution of Dr Borlaug

Gene pyramiding, gene deployment and shuttle breeding strategies to increase yield and develop leaf rust-resistant varieties were among Dr. Borlaug’s revolutionary contributions.

The man who devoted a lifetime fighting hunger was as concerned at the threat to agriculture from the virulent stem rust Ug99 as the challenge of enlarging the food basket by introducing new nutritious crops.

First World Pneumonia Day on November 2

November 2 will be observed as the first World Pneumonia Day

· Nevertheless, two million children under five years of age die from pneumonia each year – more than from AIDS, measles and malaria combined.

· Every minute, one child dies of pneumonia in India, according to new World Health Organization data

· Two bacteria – Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenza type 2 (Hib) -- as the leading causes of pneumonia.

· India leads the world with 27 per cent of the global pneumonia cases, followed by Afghanistan, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

· To check this he Union Health Ministry introduce a pentavalent (five-in-one) vaccine which includes Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib), one of the two bacteria causing pneumonia and meningitis.

Energy related issues

NPCIL to start building two PHWRs

NPCIL Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)

Chairman S.K. Jain.

· The ground-breaking ceremony for the construction of two indigenous nuclear reactors of 700 MWe capacity will take place by next month end at Kakrapar in Gujarat

· This is the first time the NPCIL will be building the two Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) of 700 MWe. So far, it has built only PHWRs of 220 MWe or 540 MWe capacity.

· The indigenous PHWRs use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as both the coolant and moderator.

Big push to R&D in renewable energy

To promote generation of energy from renewable sources, the Central Government has decided to invest Rs. 500 crore on its research, development and technology demonstration during the XI Plan.

· These projects( in total 77 ) include development of high efficiency solar cells, hydrogen and fuel cells; solar photovoltaic and solar thermal power generation; high-rate bio-methanation; and medium and large capacity biogas plants for energy and power generation

· Rs.303 crore had been released to States and Union Territories under the Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for various solar energy projects.

· India’s first megawatt size grid-connected solar power plant had been inaugurated at Jamuria in Asansol district of West Bengal.

· Two more plants of 2 MW capacity each have been set up in Karnataka’s Kolar and Belgaum districts, while another 1 MW plant will come up in Raichur district in Karnataka.

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission

· Under the mission, three major steps are proposed —

1. create volumes which will allow domestic manufacture;

2. support R&D to reduce material consumption and improve efficiency;

3. and announce long-term policy to purchase power.

· The first phase target of the Mission is 1,100 MW grid solar power capacity by March, 2013.

SITES FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

• U.S.-led consortia at Chhayamithi Virdi in Gujarat and Kovvada in(AP), seek to source technology and material for large nuclear power plants.
• Russia has been given a site at Haripur in West Bengal, besides Koodankulam. more broad-based than those with the U.S. and France, as it also includes an agreement to secure long-term uranium supplies
• French company Areva will start work at Jaitapur in Maharashtra. seek to source technology and material for large nuclear power plants.

M.P. to get its first nuclear power project

The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) has decided to set up an atomic station(first) to generate 1400 MW power in at Chutka Mandla district in Madhya Pradesh,

DEFENCE

Project -75

· The project-75 envisaged six French -Scorpene to be constructed in the first phase (2000-2012) and the balance in the second phase (2013-2030)

· At present six French -Scorpene submarines are being built at the Mazagoan Dock and the project is running behind schedule.

· The first submarines are likely to be inducted only by 2012 with the entire first phase due to be completed by 2017.

Agni-II

The Agni-II is an intermediate range ballistic missile built by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

· It has two stages, both powered by solid propellants.

· It can reach targets 2,500 km away and carry nuclear warheads.

· The missile is 20 metre long and weighs 17 tonnes. It can carry payloads weighing one tonne.

AGNI - III

o It is surface-to-surface ballistic missile which can carry nuclear warheads It is two stage ,powered by solid propellants.

o It is 17-metre long, has a diameter of two metres and launch weight of 50 tonnes & can carry payload of 1.5 tonnes The missile re-enters the atmosphere with a high velocity at a temperature of more than 2,500 degrees Celsius.

o The nuclear warhead is protected by a heat-shield made of carbon-carbon composites.

o Agni-III, , can carry nuclear warheads weighing 1.5 tonnes. It can fly over 3,500 km (the longest range in India’s arsenal ) and even target parts of China.

o The missile was equipped with a sophisticated computer system, navigated with an advanced system and guided by an innovative scheme.

o The ASL (Advance System Laboratry Hyderabad ) designs and develops the Agni variants.

o While the first Agni-III launch on July 9, 2006 failed, the second and third launches on April 12, 2007, and May 7, 2008, witnessed copy-book flights.

o Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) have raised the bar: they will now busy themselves with realising Agni-V, which will have a range of 5,000 km.

K-15 missile

· K-15 missile from a submerged pontoon off the coast of Visakhapatnam. The pontoon will simulate the conditions of a submarine. K-15 had been launched earlier from submerged pontoons, but this is a different version.

· The first version, called Mark-1, is being fitted into the indigenously built nuclear-powered submarine named Arihant.

· They can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads. They are 10.4 metres tall and weigh 6.3 tonnes each.. Their warheads weigh about a 1,000 kg.

· (Range) After the K-15 missile clears the water medium, it climbs 20 km into the air and can destroy targets 700 km away.

· The missile forms part of the DRDO’s Sagarika project.

Shourya, which is the land-version of the underwater-launched K-15 missile, will have its second flight around June from the Integrated Test Range at Balasore, Orissa.

Dhanush and Prithvi-II

Dhanush(350 km),

· a naval variant of Prithvi(290 km),

· the 11-metre long Dhanush is a ship-to-surface and ship-to-ship system.

· single-stage, liquid propelled missiles and capable of carrying a 500-kg payload.

Prithvi-II(295 km)

· While the 8.5-metre-tall Prithvi-II is a surface-to-surface missile,

· Single-stage, liquid propelled missiles and capable of carrying a 500-kg payload.

“Cope-09”

· Air warriors from India and the United States will be engaged in a major joint exercise “Cope-09”

· In this excersise for the first time C-17 Globemaster, a heavy lift military transport aircraft is deployed .

· The Indian Air Force plans to procure the transport aircraft to replace the fleet of Russian IL-76 ‘Gajraj,’ inducted in the mid-1980s.

· The exercise will be held in Agra from October 19

Yudh Abhyas 09

Yudh Abhyas 09, the Indo-U.S. joint military exercise, was conducted.

It was held under the aegis of the HQ Southern Command and the White Tigers Division, and under the framework of Chapter 7 of the United Nations Peace Keeping Operations.

· The exercise saw the display of the powerful Javelin anti-tank guided missiles, along with the Stryker vehicles, which was deployed in India for the first time.

· It conformed to the joint operations under a U.N. mandate and was primarily focused on counter-insurgency/counter-terrorism strategies in a semi-urban scenario.

· This is the first exercise of the Indo-U.S. joint mechanised forces, with an Indian mechanised battalion joining hands with a Stryker squadron(US mechanized forces ).

Brahmos to be assembled in Pilani

The Chief Controller of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Chief Executive Officer of BrahMos Board, Sivthanu Pillai,

· At present the Brahmos missiles, a joint venture of India and Russia, are assembled in Hyderabad.

· There is also a Brahmos Aerospace Thiruvananthapuram Limited near the Kerala capital.

· The country’s next assembling centre for the prestigious Brahmos missiles will be Rajasthan’s Pilani.

· Brahmos is the fastest missile in the world, The missile moves three times faster than the speed of sound .